CYBERTYPES

CYBERTYPES- Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet
In this article, Lisa Nakamura writes how cybernetic tourism, the internet and transnationality com in play with issues of race, ethnicity and identity. She starts by quoting the television commercial “Anthem” which “claims that on the internet, there are no infirmities, no gender, no age- only minds” (87). Such a form of communication she calls “utopia, a place uninfluenced by the rest of it” (87). In this commercial, the word race is written on the chalkboard and crossed out by an Indian girl. But Nakamura argues that the ‘rest of it’ cannot be easily crossed out as the word race is crossed on the chalkboard. In the rest of this chapter, Nakamura focuses on pointing out how “the rest of it, the spectator of racial and ethnic difference and its visual and textual representation in print and television advertisements that appeared in 1997 for Compaq, IBM, and Origin, has not been easily erased but rather reinforced by these advertisements. These ads she says, “Sell networking and communications technologies that depict racial differences, ‘the rest of it’ as a visual marker. The spectacles of race in these advertising images are designed to stabilize contemporary anxieties that networking technology and access to cyberspace may break down ethnic and racial differences” (87). In these adverts, the viewer is placed in the position of a tourist, and sketch out a future in which difference is either elided or put in its proper place. Some advertisements like that of MCI for instance, not only sell internet services but also a particular kind of content: the idea that getting online and becoming part of a global network will liberate the user from the body with its inconvenient and limiting attributes such as race, gender, disability, and age” (88). At this point, Nakamura states that the aspect of the body and identity come into play with telecommunication. Telecommunication however, claims to change the nature of identity (88). Further, Nakamura states that this advertisement claims to produce a radical form of democracy that refers to and extends an American model of social equality and equal access. To the visual images of diversity, the advertisement claims that the ‘MCI products will reduce the different bodies that we see to just minds. Nakamura’s

WHY I HATE ABERCROMBIE & FITCH

WHY I HATE ABERCROMBIE & FITCH
In this chapter, Dwight McBride writes why he hates Abercrombie and Fitch. In reaching at this conclusion, he begins “with a brief history of the company and the label of Abercrombie & Fitch itself.” Secondly, he spends some time “discussing the ‘A&F look,’ especially as it is exemplified in the A&F Quarterly- the sexy quarterly catalog/ magazine that has been the source of much controversy among the decency police.” Thirdly, he “considers some aspects of the corporate culture of Abercrombie as it is represented by its stores, managers, and brand reps.” Finally he refers back to these three points in his analysis of how ‘Abercrombie’ functions as an idea, in order to justify the title claims of this essay in putting for the why it is [he] hates Abercrombie & Fitch” (62).

TAKAKI CHAPTER 12

TAKAKI CHAPTER 12
EL NORTE-The Borderland of Chicano America
In this chapter Takaki writes about how the Mexicans came to the United States of America. He states how America was viewed as a land of promise by many people from other nations. But he says “to the immigrants from Mexico, it was ‘El Norte,’ a land across the river, this country became the stuff of boundless dreams for Mexican migrants” (311). To this land of many boundless dreams, many Mexicans came with a lot of high hopes. As they crossed the northern border, they had vivid images of success. There were several reasons why the Mexicans moved in numbers to America.
Those that managed to get to America told their friends in Mexican about the joy they had in America. This led to “a chain reaction that brought others and others” (312). One of the reasons for this chain reaction in who came was that it was easier for Mexicans than any other immigrants to cross the border. “Unlike the immigrants from Asia and Europe, Mexicans could enter and leave without passports whenever they wished” (312).
Part of the reason for this El Norte migration was that it was an extension of population movements already under way within Mexico. Rural workers and their families had begun migrating to urban centers” (312). On top of this were the declining industries and the non cultivation of land. This led to competition in employment and so most Mexicans migrated to America in search of jobs. The frustration caused in the economy of Mexico led to the 1910 Mexican revolution. By 1911, a “civil war spread across Mexico” (314). To find refuge most Mexicans fled to El Norte with the view to come back once the war ended. “But the civil war seemed endless, forcing tens of thousands of refugees to flee northward in search of safety” (314). In other words, most of them were forced to move northward due to the poverty and the horror of the war. Most of them left with the view that they will get better jobs and better wages. The American “wages [were] two to three times higher than the wages in Mexico” (315). This hope of better wages also drew Mexicans towards the north.
Another major factor that facilitated the migration of Mexicans to America “was the development of transportation” (316). In 1895 the Mexican international railway had extended into Texas thereby facilitating the movement. Most of the Mexicans who moved were from the agricultural class. “During the early twentieth centaury, Mexicans [Chicanos] were encouraged to cross the border because their labor was needed” (317).Yet it was clear that race was being used as a weapon by the American Federation was of Labor. When Mexican tried to attain citizenship, the Americans denied them citizenship for the fear that Mexican would not easily assimilate the American culture. Those who were American by birth were still reminded that they were still Mexicans.
As I read this article, I saw the same things that happened to other immigrants in other articles we read happening to Mexicans as well. This made me realize the fact that Americans at this time were only interested in cheap labor from the immigrants. And once this purpose was fulfilled, and then the immigrants had no other use. Its as though all that mattered to white Americans at this time was maximizing profit by taking advantage of cheap labor.

TAKAKI CHAPTER 7

TAKAKI CHAPTER 7- FOREIGNERS IN THEIR NATIVE LAND
In this chapter, Takaki writes about how the Market Revolution propelled American expansion towards the Pacific. To achieve their goal of expansion, the United States armed forces needed to recruit more people. At this time, there were a lot of Iris people in America who ran away from British colonization. Hence they “found themselves becoming Americans by participating in the conquest of the Southwest- an American expansionist thrust celebrated as manifest destiny” (167). The state of interest at this time was California. In order to add California to the United States, the armed force had to go to war against Mexicans who were the inhabitants at that time. The war began in a small town called Sonoma. The aim here was to get Don Vallejo, a Californian by birth and a general, into captive because “he represented a long history of Spanish and Mexican efforts to secure the Californian territory against America and Russian expansion” (168). Therefore, he and his brother and brother in law were taken captive though Don Vallejo was later released.

HOW JEWS BECAME WHITE FOLKS

HOW JEWS BECAME WHITE FOLKS
In this chapter, Paula S. Rothenberg writes how the Jews became to be considered white. He starts out by quoting Kenneth Roberts who states that “the American nation was founded and developed by the Nordic race” (38). At that time, anti-Semitism was a part of daily life when America did not regard immigrant European workers as white. The author states that he grew up at a time when “were simply one kind of white folks and where ethnicity meant little more to [his] generation than food and family heritage” (38). This is evident that at this time, Jews were members of an inferior race. His main body of this chapter focuses on the processes that led Jews to be where they are now.
Most Jews believe they attained their status today by their “hard work and a high value placed on education” (41). But Paula points out that this could not be true due to what he calls ‘scientific racism’ which had the notion that “real Americans were white and that real whites came from northwest Europe” (41). This initiated racism which spread into education, housing and employment. For example, “Jews were excluded from mainstream corporate management and corporately employed professions, except in the garment and movie industries” (42). Jews strived to get themselves to middle class levels. And the two main questions the author asks are whether the Jews and other Euro-ethnics became white because they became middle class or did being incorporated into an expanded version of whiteness open up the economic doors to middle class status? (43). He concludes that both tendencies are at play here.
The government had set certain changes during the war that led to a more inclusive version of whiteness. In other words, they were changes on who was made white. For example, “the census of 1940 no longer distinguished native whites of native parentage from those of immigrant parentage” (43). Therefore, this allowed for Jews and other Euro- ethnics to assimilate into mainstream and ascend the ladder to middle class. Hence with time, they would have equal opportunities to prosper into the middle class majority as did those considered native whites.
Furthermore, “economic prosperity also played a very powerful role in the whitening process” (43). The postwar period saw America emerging with the strongest economy in the world. This led to an enormous need for professional, technical, and managerial labor. Therefore, more Jews and Euro ethnics were included in the labor force that was initially considered only for real whites. This was made possible through the GI Bill of Rights. Paula however, calls this act an affirmative action because it was aimed at and disproportionately helped male Euro- origins GIs” (44). These GI benefits led to an exposure of racism especially in education and occupation and proved why Paula calls them an affirmative action for white males. He states that he calls them so “because they were decidedly not extended to African Americans or to women of any race” (45). This is one example of white male privilege.
Suburbanization is another process that played a role in the whitening process. This was a policy that showed a lot of discrimination and segregation in terms of housing. Whites were only allocated to white neighborhoods. No one of another race could be allocated a house or allowed to buy a house in the white neighborhood if they weren’t even if they had the money to buy it. “The result of these policies was that African Americans were totally shut out of the suburban boom” (48). One article stated how there could be half a dozen vacant houses yet, none available for Negroes. Redlining is another process that ensured that people of other races would not “buy or repair their homes in the neighborhoods in which they were allowed to live. Urban renewal was the other side of the process by which Jews and other working class Euro- immigrants became middle class” (48}. Therefore, these processes show that “it took federal programs to create the conditions whereby the abilities of Jews and other European immigrants could be recognized and rewarded rather than denigrated and denied” (49), hence eliminating the belief that Jews made it up to where they are now by their hard work.
As I read this chapter, I was amazed at how not every white was considered white. All along, my thinking has been that whites have all been white as long as their skin is white regardless of where they come from.

TAKAKI CHAPTER 6

EMIGRANTS FROM ERIN
In this chapter, Takaki writes about the “massive influx of a new group of immigrants” (139) that came to America following Indian removal and slavery expansion by English settlers. He states that “suddenly, blacks in the north were competing with Irish workers” (139). The coming of the Irish brought a lot of competition to the labor force and led to a lot of people of other races to lose employment. People of other races could clearly see at that time that the Irish were given better opportunities to employment because of their color. One of the employees complained that the “hunger and color [of the Iris] are thought to give them a title to special favor” (139). But people of other races also wondered why ‘whites’ were taking vocations of people of color. They stated that by taking on the vacations of colored people, whites had also assumed the ‘degradation’ of people of color.
Most Irish however, saw their coming to America as a necessity. They felt that they were being driven away from their homeland by the ‘English tyranny,’ the British yoke enslaving Ireland (140). They complained that they were being forced out of their country by foul British laws and oppression. At this point, the “English conquest led to the abolition of traditional Irish laws and obligations and confiscation of Irish lands (140). One of the changes the English settlers introduced was commercialization of agriculture which meant more export of agricultural produce. This led into the famine year of 1846. Takaki states that “half the people of Ireland could have been fed with the livestock exported in 1846” (144). With a view to get to a better land and escape all this misery, most Irish decided to migrate to the new world where they felt things would be much better.
In the new world, Irish people sought for labor and were assigned mainly to do the hazardous jobs, therefore, increasing the rate of accidents among them. “They had crossed the ocean in pursuit of riches, but they failed to find gold on the street corners” (148). Instead, they were meant to work harder than they used to in their own country.they were made to live and work in very poor conditions.
however, the Irish women had a strategy they called the Irish Ethnic Strategy.this was a strategy in which Irish women did not want their daughters to end up as servants. instead, they were encouraged to seek employment as secretaries, nurses and teachers, so much that by "1910, Irish- American women constituted one fifth of all public school teachers in northern cities and one third in Chicago alone" (161). this advancement of Irish women indicated a rise from the 'giddy multitude.' soon most Irish American were attending college. the Irish were thought of as a race that could easily assimilate the American culture unlike negroes and Chinese.
As i read this article, i asked myself how come Irish people could be easily accepted in the American culture than Chinese or Negroes. however, i noticed that the fact that the Irish are much more similar in color to whites than anyother race at that time played a role in how they were accepted and thought of to easily assimilate. their rise in socio economic status also played a role in their assimilation.